Family support = Carers, Domestic violence , Family support ,Respite care

Carers

Introduction

A carer is anyone who looks after a relative or friend who needs support because of age, mental health problems, physical or learning disability or illness. There are approximately 5.7 million carers in Britain excluding health professionals and care workers.
Most carers are between the ages of 45 and 64, with a slightly higher proportion of women than men. However, many carers are outside that age group with many young carers caring for a parent, sibling or other relative. Many parent carers look after disabled children, and a large number of older people provide significant care to others.
Many carers provide personal care such as bathing, washing, dressing and toileting. Many also provide physical help with getting in and out of bed, walking and getting up and down stairs.
Caring for someone can be physically exhausting and emotionally demanding. Many carers have to give up employment, leading to loneliness, living on Government benefits and consequent financial difficulties.
Continue to the next section "Facts"

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Domestic violence

Introduction
Domestic violence is any form of violence between people who already have a relationship, or have had one in the past, for example husband and wife, or former partners. Adults of all ages, genders, races and sexualities can be affected.
The term ‘domestic violence’ covers a range of different situations that can happen in your home or elsewhere. It only applies to people over 18.
Although both men and women can be affected, over 80% of victims are women. Over 12 million incidents a year happen to women and figures may be even higher if more people reported the violence. Women are also more at risk from repeated violence and more at risk of serious injury, and even death. Domestic violence can also have a serious effect on children.
Most forms of domestic violence are criminal offences. People who carry it out can be punished in a court of law.
If you are experiencing domestic violence, you may feel unable to ask for help or take control of the situation. You may want to seek help, but feel afraid of what the consequences could be. It’s important to remember that there are many confidential organisations out there that can help you.
Continue to the next section "Definition"

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Family support

Introduction
Family life isn't always easy, and it's not uncommon to feel angry, depressed or stressed when things go wrong. Coping with divorce, coming to terms with adoption, dealing with neglect or abuse, or living with parents who don't understand you are all examples of difficult family issues that put a lot of strain on relationships.
Family problems can often be very sensitive and emotional, and it can be hard to know what to do for the best. It's important to remember that you are not alone - try talking to someone you trust. This could be a parent, close friend, social worker or teacher.
Talking to other people with similar experiences can also help. There are many support groups for parents and carers that give people the chance to tell their own stories and give support to each other.
For more serious problems, such as child abuse or domestic violence, there are specialist organisations that can help. You can talk through the problem confidentially with advisors who are trained to give support and help. In cases where a person's safety is in danger, social services or the police may need to be informed, but this will be discussed first.
Sometimes families have to separate for the health and welfare of all. This may involve children moving into a foster or care home, or the parents separating and moving to different places. Sometimes families are divided by long-term illness or disability that stops a family member living at home.
Whatever the problem, there are a range of services that offer advice and support to families. This includes social workers, youth workers, family support workers, parent and child centres, support groups, and counselling services. These types of services help families to improve and work through difficult issues, ensure children have a stable environment to live in, and provide support for parents who are finding it hard to cope.

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Respite care

Introduction
Respite care is a short break away from your carer, which provides a rest for yourself and your carer. If you are being cared for in your home because of illness, disability or frailty, your Social Services Department may be able to offer respite care services to support your carer to continue their caring role.
Respite care can take place in a variety of settings. It might be for a few hours a day at a day centre; or for a few days, or a couple of weeks in a residential home or nursing home or living with an approved support family in some areas. A sitting service at home can also sometimes be arranged.
Continue to the next section "How does it work?"

Complementary medicines

Complementary medicines , Acupuncture , Introduction

Acupuncture is a form of traditional Chinese medicine that originated around 2,000 years ago. Acupuncture is based on the belief that the working of the human body is controlled by a life force called Qi (pronounced chee). This flows between the organs of the body along pathways called meridians or channels.
There are 12 meridians for the 12 main organs of the body, including the heart, liver, lungs, kidney and stomach. Although the meridians are named after particular organs, the name refers to other associated organs as well. For example, the kidney meridian is associated with the ears, eyes, bones, genitals, urethra and anus. Qi energy must run in the correct strength through these channels for us to be healthy. Illness occurs when the flow of Qi is blocked or unbalanced.
Acupuncture points are located along the meridians. Needles are inserted in these places to unblock or alter the flow of Qi. This is thought to balance the proper flow of Qi and restore health.

Why is it necessary?

In Western medicine, acupuncture is generally used to treat the symptoms of a condition rather than the condition or disease itself. It can be helpful in relieving pain, and as a result, is the most common used complementary therapy on the NHS. Studies show that acupuncture is effective for treating post-operative nausea and vomiting, chemotherapy related nausea and vomiting, sickness and nausea in pregnancy, and post-operative dental pain.
As yet, research into the effectiveness of acupuncture treatment for chronic pain has not produced consistent results, which is due partly to the small scale of the studies that have taken place. Although research shows that acupuncture is not harmful, several studies suggest it is no more effective than a placebo. Therefore, acupuncture is generally used as a second or third treatment option on the NHS for patients with chronic pain, such as migraine, arthritis or back pain. It is not normally recommended unless conventional treatment has failed.
Symptoms such as pain or sickness can indicate that there is a more serious problem inside the body. Your doctor will try to find the cause of the symptoms before recommending acupuncture.

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Blood disorders and Cancer

Blood disorders
Anaemia
Bites, insect
Blood poisoning
Blood pressure (high)
Blood pressure (low)
Diabetes
Diabetes insipidus
Differential test
Drink spiking
Haemophilia
Hughes syndrome
Hyperglycaemia
Hyperlipidaemia and lipid-lowering medicines
Hypoglycaemia
Jaundice
Jaundice - newborn
Leukaemia
Multiple myeloma
Osteoporosis
Poisoning
Rhesus disease
Septic shock
Sickle-cell anaemia
Thalassaemia
Toxic shock syndrome

Cancer

Brain tumour
Cancer
Cancer of the bile duct
Cancer of the bladder
Cancer of the bone
Cancer of the breast, female
Cancer of the breast, male
Cancer of the cervix
Cancer of the colon, rectum or bowel
Cancer of the kidney
Cancer of the larynx
Cancer of the liver
Cancer of the lung
Cancer of the mouth
Cancer of the oesophagus
Cancer of the ovary
Cancer of the prostate
Cancer of the skin
Cancer of the stomach
Cancer of the testicle
Cancer of the thyroid
Cancer of the uterus
Cancer of the vagina
CEA test
Chemotherapy
Leukaemia
Lymphoma
Malignant melanoma
Multiple myeloma

Anaemia

Blood disorders

Anaemia
Introduction

Blood contains a fluid called plasma that includes three different types of cells:

white blood cells are part of the body’s immune system, and defend it against infection,

red blood cells carry oxygen around the body in a substance called haemoglobin, and

platelets help the blood to clot.

Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. Vast quantities (millions) of new cells are produced each day to replace old cells that break down. Nutrients from food, such as iron and certain vitamins, help ensure that your bone marrow remains healthy, and is able to produce a constant supply of red blood cells and haemoglobin.

Anaemia

Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body. Anaemia is a condition where the blood is unable to carry enough oxygen due to a low number of red blood cells, or because each red blood cell is unable to carry as much oxygen as normal. Common symptoms of anaemia include feeling tired, faint, or breathless.There are several different types of anaemia, and each one has a different cause. One of the most common causes is iron deficiency. Other causes can include pregnancy, heavy periods, poor iron absorption caused by certain intestinal (gut) diseases, bleeding from the intestines, and a lack of certain vitamins, such as folic acid and vitamin B12.

Symptoms

Common symptoms of anaemia include:

tiredness,
lethargy,
feeling faint, and
breathlessness.

Less common symptoms of anaemia include:
headaches,
palpitations (irregular heart beat),
an altered sense of taste, and
ringing in the ears (tinnitus).
Depending on the underlying cause of your anaemia, you may also develop a number of other symptoms (as outlined below).
Iron deficiency anaemia
Iron deficiency anaemia is the most common type of anaemia, affecting up to 30% of the world’s population. In developed countries, up to 14% of menstruating women have iron deficiency anaemia. The symptoms of iron deficiency anaemia include:
sore tongue (glossitis),
painful cracks at the corners of the mouth (cheilosis),
difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia),
brittle, flaking nails,
spoon-shaped nails,
pale skin (pallor), and
loss of weight.
Occasionally, if you have iron deficiency anaemia, you may have unusual dietary cravings (known as pica). In young children, iron deficiency anaemia can sometimes cause behavioural and developmental problems, and weaken their immune system.
Pernicious anaemia
Pernicious anaemia occurs when vitamin B12 cannot be absorbed properly from the diet. It causes soreness of the tongue, weight loss, skin pallor (often with a lemon tint), and intermittent diarrhoea. If left untreated, pernicious anaemia can affect the nervous system, causing tingling of the fingers and toes, muscle weakness, pains in the legs and difficulty walking, depression, and confusion.
Megaloblastic anaemia
In megaloblastic anaemia, the red blood cells are large and abnormal (megablastic). This type of anaemia develops if there is a deficiency of vitamin B12, or folic acid. As well as the general symptoms listed above, megaloblastic anaemia can also cause soreness of the tongue, indigestion, and diarrhoea.
Haemolytic anaemia
The symptoms of haemolytic anaemia include pale skin (often with a yellowish tinge), and an enlarged spleen, due to the break down of red blood cells (haemolysis).
Aplastic anaemia
Aplastic anaemia is a very rare condition, affecting just 2-5 people per million. It occurs when the bone marrow fails to produce sufficient numbers of red blood cells. It causes fever, sore throat, bruising, bleeding and blood spots, pale skin, and signs of heart failure (chest pain).

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Medical advice

Medical advice

Anaemia Bites, insect Blood poisoning Blood pressure (high) Blood pressure (low) Diabetes Diabetes insipidus Differential test Drink spiking Haemophilia Hughes syndrome Hyperglycaemia Hyperlipidaemia and lipid-lowering medicines Hypoglycaemia Jaundice Jaundice - newborn Leukaemia Multiple myeloma Osteoporosis Poisoning Rhesus disease Septic shock Sickle-cell anaemia Thalassaemia Toxic shock syndrome

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You Tell Us: Family Life

How we make birthdays special

"If my son's birthday is on a school day, I put balloons in the kitchen in the morning and let him open one present. It's something out of the ordinary to start his day off right." Kathryn Witt, Lemont, PA"We plan a family trip to a local museum, aquarium, or someplace unique to celebrate. Our two children love the adventure, and we get to do something special just for the birthday kid!" Shannon Daughdrill, Easthampton, MA"I create a collage of our favorite photos from the year and display it at my son's party. It's fun to see how much he's changed and to look at all of the good times we've had together."Wendi Brandow, Cohoes, NY Answer this month's question, and your quote could appear in Parenting or on Parenting.com:

Moms' 7 biggest driving mistakes -- and how to avoid them

By Emily BlochParenting.com
____________________________

Remember those plastic yellow "warning" signs people stuck on their cars back in the '80s -- "baby on board"? Maybe it's time they came back in style. Only this time, let's stick them on our foreheads. Because let's face it: In our constantly rushed and sleep-deprived state, we moms often don't drive as safely as we should.

Whether we're trying to get our kids to the doctor, a playdate, or daycare, and ourselves to work, the supermarket, or pickup, we've got a million things on our minds. And we're running late. This makes us, and our kids, more vulnerable to accidents. Car crashes are the leading cause of death for those ages 3 to 33. And nearly 80 percent of accidents result from driver distractions of just three seconds -- like handing a child a sippy cup! Here's how to avoid the biggest mistakes you could be making behind the wheel:

Chatting on your cell phone

It's tempting to use free minutes to arrange a playdate, but talking on your cell in a car is even worse than driving drunk. In a recent University of Utah study, the group using cell phones in a simulated environment had three accidents, while those who were inebriated had none. Why? Talking on a phone slows your reaction time (drunken drivers tend to be more aggressive, but they're not impaired the way cell-phone users are).
You're not off the hook if you use a headset. It doesn't matter how many hands you have on the wheel if you're not focused on the road. And while dialing a number is twice as dangerous as talking on the phone, we spend so little time dialing and so much time gabbing that they're equally risky, says Charlie Klauer, Ph.D., senior research associate at the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, in Blacksburg. So:
• Don't talk on your cell, unless you absolutely must.
• If you need to make a call, keep it short. "The longer you're on the phone, the higher your risk goes up," says Klauer. A quick "Hey, I picked up some tacos and I'm on my way home," is OK. But "So I told her that I couldn't find the report, but she just walked away like she didn't even hear me, and then I was like, 'Well, I guess I'll have to write an e-mail to somebody's supervisor...'" is not.
• When your phone rings, let the person leave a message, and call her back later. Or look for a safe spot to pull over so you can return the call

http://www.cnn.com/parenting/article/0,19840,1210425,00.html?cnn=yes

Feeling overconfident

Think it's mostly men who drive like maniacs? Think again. According to a University of Minnesota study, while women tend to say they're pretty tame drivers, once behind the wheel they drive just as aggressively as men. Of course you want to be in charge while you drive, but cockiness can lead to accident-prone maneuvers, such as tailgating, blocking another car from your lane, and speeding. Be honest about your driving skills. Do you know evasive moves for avoiding an accident? If not, contact your state's department of motor vehicles for a list of approved defensive-driving courses -- some of which you can take online. A bonus: Many insurers offer policy discounts if you complete the course.

Driving while drowsy

More parents than nonparents say they drive while tired, according to the National Sleep Foundation. That's no surprise, considering how little sleep we get! But you should never underestimate how drowsiness can hamper your driving, and:
• As much as possible, get a good night's sleep  seven to nine hours is best.
• When you can't get enough rest, carpool or ask someone else to come. There'll be another person to look out for hazards or take over.
• Don't drive when you're naturally most drowsy. That usually means nighttime and that coma-inducing lull right after lunch.
• Take a quick nap, especially before a long trip. A cup of coffee may give you a jolt, but it won't help you stay alert, says Kristin Backstrom, president of Safe Smart Women, a driver-safety nonprofit in Silver Spring, Maryland.
• If you're driving and feel sleepy, sing out loud or roll down the window for some fresh air, and get to a safe rest area right away. Then take a walk, stretch, or nap.

Speeding

It's 5:15 p.m. Your child's day care is a 20-minute drive away. If you don't get there by 5:30, they charge you $1 for every minute you're late. Worse than that is the look the day-care provider shoots you when you walk in the door. Worse than that is the look your child shoots you. So who can blame you for going 55 mph in a 35-mph zone? We sympathize. But roughly 30 percent of all fatal crashes are due to speeding, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The faster you drive, the longer it takes to slow down if something unexpected arises. And most drivers don't realize how long it takes to reach a full stop. You need 300 feet to stop your car when you're going 60 miles per hour. And if you're driving an SUV -- which is basically a truck -- it can be harder to handle sudden stops. To tell if you're keeping a safe distance:

• Use the three-second rule during the day, in good weather and easy traffic. Choose a fixed object ahead of the car in front of you. After that car reaches the object, count "one-one thousand, two-one thousand...." If you get there before three seconds, you're following too closely.
• Make it six seconds at night or in bad weather or heavy traffic.
• In really bad weather, make it nine seconds.

Snacking while steering

Sometimes, the only real meal moms get is the coffee and bagel we scarf down while driving our kids to day care or school. "But when you look down at your food for a second, you're missing what's in front of you," says Arlene Greenspan, senior scientist at the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, in Atlanta, Georgia. "And that's how accidents happen." One NHTSA study found that eating is nearly as distracting as reading! If you really have to eat, keep food to the side and take bites only while you're waiting at a light.

Attending to your kids

How safely would you handle these mini-crises that pop up with kids in the car?
1. A car honking next to you wakes up your baby, and she starts to wail. You're just 15 minutes from home, so you:
A) Sing every lullaby you know the words to, and make up the ones you don't.
B) Reach back with your right hand to provide your pinkie for her to suck on.
C) Pull over at a parking lot to nurse her, figuring it might calm her.
2. You and your toddler are taking his friend home after a playdate. The friend lobs a sippy cup at your son. You:
A) Tilt the rearview mirror to look back and say, "Do that one more time, and..."
B) Turn around at a stoplight to get the cup from your son's revenge-seeking grip and to tell his friend, "Don't you do that again."
C) Say, "Stop that," turning around to grab the cup. (Parenting.com: Avoiding parenting mistakes )
1. Either A or C is safe. "If your baby is crying but you know she's going to be fine, keep driving. If you want to check on her, you need to find a gas station or other safe place -- not a shoulder -- and pull over," says Backstrom.
2. Only B is safe. Why? The problem with using your rearview mirror to look at the backseat is that you're not looking at what you're supposed to be looking at: the road ahead. And, of course, never turn around while driving.

Slacking on car maintenance

In 2005 there were 660 fatalities and 33,000 injuries that were due to tires that were underinflated, overinflated, or that had worn treads -- which can make cars harder to handle. To be safe, you need to take care of your car, which is actually easy.
Every time you fill up the tank:
• Check the air in your tires with a pressure gauge. (Read your car manual for specifications.)
• Inspect your tire tread. When it wears down to 1/16 of an inch, the reduced traction can cause you to lose control when you brake or turn (especially in an SUV). Insert a penny into the tread with Lincoln's head facing out; if you see all of his head, get a new tire.
Every time you get your oil changed (typically, every three months or 3,000 miles):
• Ask the mechanic to also check your car's power steering, brake, transmission, and coolant levels.
• Turn on your headlights and turn signals; make sure they work. Check your brake lights.
Don't let it slide when:
• You're out of windshield fluid or the wipers are getting old. In a storm your view would be impaired.
• Your brakes feel "mushy" or in any way out of the ordinary.
• The "check engine" or any other warning light comes on.

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Blood History

The first recorded successful human blood transfusion was accomplished in 1818, but due to the lack of knowledge and research, it was followed by many blood transfusion failures. Some 80 years later, it was discovered that inherited differences in people's red cells were the cause of many of the incompatibilites seen with transfusions. Four blood types were identified - A, B, AB and O. This discovery revolutionized hematology and led the way for successful blood transfusions.

During World War I, when human blood was needed for transfusions for wounded soldiers, scientists began to study how to preserve and transport blood. But it was not until World War II that the development of effective preservative solutions made blood transfusions widely and safely available. Since then, there have been many advances, such as the discovery of the Rh blood group system and technical developments such as the introduction of the plastic bag for safer blood collection.

By the end of 1947, several blood banks had been established in major cities across the U.S. and blood donation was promoted to the public as a way of fulfilling one's civic responsibility.

Freezing of red blood cells, separation of different blood components by centrifugation, apheresis (extraction of one blood component and returning the rest to the donor) and many other discoveries and advancements make for full utilization of every donation. Each blood element can be used to treat different diseases.

Today, in light of HIV, Hepatitis C and many other diseases, the federal government has enforced regulations for blood screening tests in an effort to improve blood safety and to reduce the risk from blood transfusions. To further ensure the safety of the blood supply, the government outlawed paying someone for his or her blood.

Human blood is precious. There is no substitute for it and there is no way to manufacture it outside the body. Yet, millions of times each year, human blood is required to save the lives of people suffering from disease or who are victims of accidents.
That is why BCP plays such a vital role in helping save lives in our community.

Blood Safety

Blood Safety

The blood supply in the United States is much safer today than ever before. The risk of HIV transmission has been nearly eliminated and the risk of hepatitis transmission greatly reduced thanks to multiple levels of safeguards, including:

• comprehensive evaluation of donors' medical and social history to exclude donors who may be carriers of infectious agents;


• physical examination of the donor;


• strict donation procedures using sterile supplies; and


• laboratory testing.

These procedures are followed by all blood centers nationwide and are monitored under the regulatory guidance of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Only volunteers are permitted to donate blood, and there are no incentives to give. Studies prove that community volunteers are the safest source of blood for transfusion. Every donor completes a health history questionnaire and screening interview to identify behaviors that indicate a high risk for carrying blood borne disease. Strict confidentiality, as well as the absence of incentives or pressure to donate, encourage honest answers and deferral of any potential donor with possible health risks.

Every time someone donates blood, that donor's blood is tested for ABO/Rh blood type and evidence of the following infectious diseases: HIV 1 and 2, Hepatitis B and C, HTLV I and II, syphilis, and West Nile virus. All platelet components are also tested for bacterial contamination. Any unit of blood that shows evidence of infectious disease is discarded, and the donor is notified and deferred from subsequent donation.

Needing Blood

Needing Blood

Most of us will require a blood transfusion at some point in our lives. Blood Centers of the Pacific provides needed blood for a population of more than 2.2 million. To do this, BCP needs approximately 450 units of blood each weekday.

In order to assure that patients who need blood can have access to it immediately, there must be a ready supply on hospital shelves. After natural disasters and other tragedies, people tend to donate more blood. However, it is the people who donate regularly whose blood saves lives during emergency situations because it is there waiting on the hospital shelves.

Major Reasons Patients Need Blood

• Cancer
• Heart and blood vessel disease
• Disease of the gastrointestinal tract
• Emergencies such as car accidents and burns

Examples

• Heart Surgery

6 units of blood

6 units of platelets

• Organ Transplant

40 units of blood

30 units of platelets

20 bags of cryoprecipitate

25 units of fresh frozen plasma

• Marrow Transplant

120 units of platelets

20 units of blood

• Auto Accident/InjuriesVictims

have used anywhere from one to 100 units of blood.

• Blood Disorders such as Anemia and Hemophilia

People with blood diseases can use hundreds of units of blood throughout their lives.

Blood Cells

Blood Cells Are Produced

In MarrowRed

cells, white cells and platelets are made in the marrow of bones, especially the vertebrae, ribs, hips, skull and sternum. These essential blood cells fight infection, carry oxygen and help control bleeding.
Plasma Carries Blood Cells

Plasma is a pale yellow mixture of water, proteins and salts. One of the functions of plasma is to act as a carrier for blood cells, nutrients, enzymes and hormones.

Red Cells Deliver Oxygen

Red cells are disc-shaped cells containing hemoglobin, which enables the cells to pick up and deliver oxygen to all parts of the body.
Photo Copyright: Dennis Kunkel,University of Hawaii

White Cells Defend The Body

White cells are the body's primary defense against infection. They can move out of the blood stream and reach tissues being invaded.
Platelets Help Control

Bleeding

Platelets are small cells in the blood that control bleeding. They form clusters to plug small holes in blood vessels and assist in the clotting process.

56 Facts About Blood and Blood Donation

56 Facts About Blood and Blood Donation
One for each day between your blood donation!


4.5 million Americans would die each year without life saving blood transfusions.

Approximately 32,000 pints of blood are used each day in the United States.

Every three seconds someone needs blood

One out of every 10 people entering a hospital needs blood.

Just one pint of donated blood can help save as many as three people’s lives.

The average adult has 10 pints of blood in his or her body.

One unit of blood is roughly the equivalent of one pint.

Blood makes up about 7% of your body's weight.

A newborn baby has about one cup of blood in his or her body.

The average red blood cell transfusion is 3.4 pints.

Blood fights against infection and helps heal wounds, keeping you healthy.

There are four main blood types: A, B, AB and O. AB is the universal recipient and O negative is the universal donor.

Blood centers often run short of type O and B blood.

Shortages of all types of blood occur during the summer and winter holidays.

If all blood donors gave 2 to 4 times a year, it would help prevent blood shortages.

If you began donating blood at age 17 and donated every 56 days until you reached 76, you would have donated 48 gallons of blood.

About three gallons of blood supports the entire nation's blood needs for one minute.

Blood donation takes four steps: medical history, quick physical, donation, and snacks.

The actual blood donation usually takes less than 10 minutes. The entire process, from when you sign in to the time you leave, takes about 45 minutes.

Giving blood will not decrease your strength.

You cannot get AIDS or any other infectious disease by donating blood.

Fourteen tests, 11 of which are for infectious diseases, are performed on each unit of donated blood.

Any company, community organization, place of worship or individual may contact their local community blood center to host a blood drive.

People donate blood out of a sense of duty and community spirit, not to make money. They are not paid for their donation.

Much of today's medical care depends on a steady supply of blood from healthy donors.

One unit of blood can be separated into several components (red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, platelets and cryoprecipitate).

Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body’s organs and tissue.

There are about one billion red blood cells in two to three drops of blood.

Red blood cells live about 120 days in the circulatory system.

Platelets help blood to clot and give those with leukemia and other cancers a chance to live.

Apheresis (ay-fur-ee-sis) is a special kind of blood donation that allows a donor to give specific blood components, such as platelets.

Donated red blood cells must be used within 42 days of collection.

Donated platelets must be used within five days of collection.

Plasma can be frozen and used for up to a year.

Plasma is a pale yellow mixture of water, proteins and salts.

Plasma, which is 90% water, constitutes 55% of blood volume.

Healthy bone marrow makes a constant supply of red cells, plasma and platelets.

People who have been in car accidents and suffered massive blood loss can need transfusions of 50 pints or more of red blood cells.

The average bone marrow transplant requires 120 units of platelets and about 20 units of red blood cells. Patients undergoing bone marrow transplants need platelets donations from about 120 people and red blood cells from about 20 people.

Severe burn victims can need 20 units of platelets during their treatment.

Children being treated for cancer, premature infants, and children having heart surgery need blood and platelets from donors of all types.

Anemic patients need blood transfusions to increase their iron levels.

Cancer, transplant and trauma patients and patients undergoing open-heart surgery require platelet transfusions to survive.

Sickle cell disease is an inherited disease that affects more than 80,000 people in the United States, 98% of whom are of African descent. Some patients with complications from severe sickle cell disease receive blood transfusions every month – up to 4 pints at a time.

In the days following the September 11 attacks, a half a million people donated blood.

Females receive 53% of blood transfused; males receive 47%.
94% of all blood donors are registered voters.

60% of the US population is eligible to donate – only 5% do on a yearly basis.

17% of non-donors cite “never thought about it” as the main reason for not giving, while 15% say they’re “too busy.” The #1 reason donors say they give is because they “want to help others.”
After donating blood, you replace these red blood cells within 3 to 4 weeks. It takes eight weeks to restore the iron lost after donating.

Granulocytes, a type of white blood cell, roll along blood vessel walls in search of bacteria to eat.
White cells are the body's primary defense against infection.
There is no substitute for human blood.

It’s about Life.

Since a pint is pound, you lose a pound every time you donate blood.

Anyone who is in good health, is at least 17 years old, and weighs at least 110 pounds may donate blood every 56 days.

Immunförsvar

Immunförsvar


mmunförsvaret eller immunsystemet hos en multicellulär organism har till uppgift att skydda den från angrepp av patogener, som bakterier, virus, svampar, protister med flera. Immunförsvaret fungerar olika beroende på organism, och en art kan ha flera olika immunförsvar samtidigt.
Människans immunförsvar kan delas upp i ospecifikt och i specifikt (adaptivt) försvar





Ospecifikt försvar





Det ospecifika immunförsvaret kallas också medfött immunförsvar därför att människan föds med det och det inte har förmågan att anpassa sig till antigen så som det adaptiva immunförsvaret kan. Icke desto mindre är det medfödda immunsvaret kroppens första försvarslinje och bekämpar en infektion direkt då det inte behöver samma starttid som det adaptiva.
Människokroppens ospecifika immunsystem utgörs av makrofager, neutrofiler, granulocyter, endotelceller och en rad andra celltyper. Makrofager är den viktigaste celltypen och har förmåga att dels fagocytera det främmande smittoämnet, men även utsöndra cytokiner, vilket rekryterar ytterligare celler till det infekterade området.
Makrofagernas förmåga att direkt bekämpa infektioner beror på att de i sitt cellmembran har proteiner som känner igen vanliga strukturer. Den bäst beskrivna receptorfamiljen kallas "Toll-like receptors" (TLR) och hos människor och möss finns 10 kända receptorer som var och en känner igen strukturer som ofta återkommer på bakterier eller ämnen som inte hör hemma fritt i kroppen.
Ibland räknas även passiva försvarsmekanismer till det ospecifika immunförsvaret. Till sådana barriärer räknas huden, som är en mycket ogästvänlig miljö för främmande bakterier. Men även saltsyran i magsäcken samt slemhinnor och luftvägarnas cilier är ogästvänliga platser för mikroorganismer.








Specifikt (adaptivt) försvar





Detta försvar i människokroppen sköts av lymfocyterna. Lymfocyter är en typ av vita blodkroppar som har specialfunktioner för att kunna bemöta angrepp av virus på ett effektivt sätt. Ett fullgjort svar från det specifika immunsystemet kan dock ta uppemot en hel vecka att byggas upp, för att sedan effektivt eliminera virusinfektionen.
Processen går till på det viset att lymfocyter i cirkulationsystemet och lymfnoder exponeras för främmande antigen via såkallade antigenpresenterande celler (dendritiska celler). Den lymfocyt som exponeras för antigenet och har specificitet för det genomgår klonal expansion, det vill säga celldelning. Inom loppet av dygn finns en mängd lymfocyter som alla har förmåga att binda och producera antikroppar mot det främmande antigenet.
Antikroppar fyller flera funktioner; eftersom antikroppen binder till patogenets yta immobiliseras smittoämnet eftersom dess receptorer blockeras från att binda sina ligander. Dels har antikroppar mer än en bindningsyta, vilket förmår denna struktur att bilda komplex med flera antigen. Antikroppen kan även fungera som aktivator åt komplementsystemet samt andra lymfocyter och mördarceller, vilket i sin tur leder till ett ännu kraftigare immunsvar.








B-lymfocyter





Huvudartikel: B-cellB-lymfocyter eller B-celler är de antikroppsproducerande cellerna. Dessa mognar i benmärgen. Olika typer av B-celler existerar, bland annat B-minnesceller vilka är involverade i immunitet. Varje B-cell producerar endast antikroppar av en enda typ och utseende, men eftersom miljontals B-lymfocyter existerar i cirkulationen finns en bred specificitet mot olika antigen.






T-lymfocyter





Huvudartikel: T-cellDessa mognar bakom bröstbenet i brässen (thymus, därav namnet). Det finns tre sorter av T-lymfocyter:
TH(Helper). Dessa lockar till sig ätarcellerna efter att ha identifierat antigenet. TK(Killer). (Kallas även cytotoxiska T-celler.) När de är aktiverade dödar dessa celler som är infekterade av virus eller intracellulära parasiter genom att aktivera apoptos i målcellen eller döda den med toxiska ämnen. T-minnesceller. Dessa minns antigenen och kan på detta sätt öka immunförsvarets effektivitet. De kan också direkt avsöndra lockmedel för att locka till sig ätarcellerna.

Blodets funktioner

Blodets funktioner

Blodets "viktigaste" funktion är att transportera syre från lungorna till kroppens vävnader genom det artäriska systemet; eftersom hjärnan är det organ som är känsligast för syrebrist är det hjärnan som tar stryk och kan dö då omfattande blodförlust till följd av blödning gör så syretransporten inte fungerar. Blodet transporterar också koldioxid genom venerna, från vävnaderna till lungorna där koldioxiden avges.

Därutöver transporterar blodet näringämnen till cellerna, och restprodukter från dem. Vissa restprodukter fraktas först till levern för nedbrytning, annat kan avlägsnas från blodet direkt i njurarna. Blodet deltar i regleringen av kroppstemperaturen, är transportväg för hormoner från de organ som tillverkar dem till respektive målvävnad, och flera av blodets beståndsdelar deltar i immunförsvaret.

Blodets innehåll

Blodkroppar kallas de celler som normalt finns i blodet. Dessa delas upp i röda och vita blodkroppar, samt trombocyter (blodplättar). Blod där cellerna avlägsnats kallas blodplasma. Plasman innehåller vatten, salter och en mängd proteiner. Om blodet får koagulera och koagel och celler avskiljs, erhålls serum.

De röda blodkropparna, erytrocyterna, hos människa saknar cellkärna. De är små celler, 7,5 mikrometer i diameter, och har en mycket speciell form – som en skiva som är urgröpt i mitten, från bägge håll. När man pratar om blodvärde, Hb, är det halten hemoglobin som avses. Röda blodkroppar bildas i benmärgen. Erytrocyter betraktas ofta inte som fullvärdiga celler, eftersom de saknar egen cellkärna med genetiskt material i form av DNA.

Röda blodkroppar innehåller hemoglobin. Hemoglobinet består utav fyra s.k. hemdelar, där det finns järn(II)-joner och till dessa binder sig syret. Det är hemoglobinet som ger blodet dess röda färg: ljusrött som i kroppens artärer (artärt blod), där blodet har en syremolekyl bunden till hemoglobinet, mörkare rött i syrefattigt venöst blod.

Vita blodkroppar (leukocyter) finns av olika sorter: neutrofiler, eosinofiler, basofiler, monocyter, B-lymfocyter och T-lymfocyter. Dessa har olika funktion, storlek och form men ingår alla i kroppens immunförsvar.

Trombocyter (blodplättar) som har en viktig uppgift i blodkoaguleringen.

Plasmaproteiner

Proteiner som vistas fritt i blodet brukar kallas plasmaproteiner. Det finns ungefär 70 gram sådana proteiner per liter plasma. Hit hör
Albumin - det protein som det finns störst mängd av i blodet och som håller blodet kvar i blodkärlen Diverse faktorer som deltar i blodkoaguleringen Immunoglobuliner (antikroppar) Hormoner Transferrin som transporterar järn till benmärgen; detta behövs för nybildning av röda blodkroppar

Historisk medicin

Enligt Hippokrates och hans medicinska lära, var blodet en av de fyra kroppsvätskorna, tillsammans med slem, gul galla och svart galla. Enligt den klassiska grekiska medicinen förknippades blodet med luft, årstiden vår, och med ett ljust sangviniskt temperament. Blodet ansågs produceras av levern. Många sjukdomar ansågs bero på ett överflöd av blod, varför åderlåtning och koppning var vanliga behandlingsmetoder fram till 1800-talet.

Blod i matlagning och kultur

På grund av dess stora betydelse för livet finns många myter om och språkliga uttryck som involverar blod - blodsband betyder släktband, och dess betydelse betonas med talesättet blod är tjockare än vatten. I den gamla grekiska medicinska läran om de fyra kroppsvätskorna var blodet den sangvinska kroppsvätskan, och ett förmodat överflöd därav avlägsnades genom åderlåtning. Judar och Jehovas Vittnen bland andra äter inte blod och blodmat; Jehovas Vittnen tar dessutom inte emot blodtransfusioner då man menar att själen finns i blodet.
Namnet på fobin för blod är Hematofobi.

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